Scale Drawing of Small Planes

Small aircraft built for display, advertizement, research, or amusement

A model shipping is a small unmanned aircraft and may exist a replica of an existing or imaginary aircraft. Model aircraft are divided into 2 basic groups: flight and not-flying. Non-flying models are as well termed static, brandish, or shelf models.

Aircraft manufacturers and researchers make current of air tunnel models for testing aerodynamic properties, for basic research, or for the development of new designs. Sometimes only part of the aircraft is modelled.

Static models range from mass-produced toys in white metal or plastic to highly accurate and detailed models produced for museum display and requiring thousands of hours of work. Many are available in kits, typically made of injection-moulded polystyrene or resin.

Flight models range from simple toy gliders made of sheets of paper, balsa, card stock or foam polystyrene to powered scale models built upward from balsa, bamboo sticks, plastic, (including both moulded or sheet polystyrene, and styrofoam), metal, constructed resin, either alone or with carbon fibre or fibreglass, and skinned with either tissue paper, mylar and other materials. Some can be very big, especially when used to inquiry the flight properties of a proposed full scale shipping.

Aerodynamic research and mock-ups [edit]

air current tunnel model of a Loire-Nieuport LN-ten floatplane

Models are fabricated for current of air tunnel and gratuitous-flight enquiry tests and may have components that can exist swapped to compare various fittings and configurations, or have features such as controls that can exist repositioned to reflect various in flight configurations. They are also often fitted with sensors for spot measurements and are ordinarily mounted on a construction that ensures the correct alignment with the airflow, and which provides additional measurements. For wind tunnel research, it is sometimes simply necessary to make function of the proposed shipping.

Full-scale static engineering science models are also constructed for production evolution, often made of unlike materials from the proposed design. Again, oft only function of the aircraft is modelled.

Static display models [edit]

Lufthansa Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor model on display

Static model aircraft cannot fly, and are used for brandish, educational activity and are used in wind tunnels to collect data for the design of full calibration aircraft. They may exist built using whatsoever suitable cloth, which often includes plastic, forest, metal, newspaper and fiberglass and may exist built to a specific scale, then that the size of the original may be compared to that of other aircraft. Models may come finished, or may require painting or associates, with mucilage, screws, or past clipping together, or both.

Many of the earth's airlines allow their aircraft to be modelled for publicity. Airlines used to lodge large scale models of their aircraft to supply them to travel agencies as a promotional particular. Desktop model airplanes may be given to airport, airline and authorities officials to promote an airline or gloat a new route or an accomplishment..^[1]

Calibration [edit]

Static model shipping are primarily available commercially in a multifariousness of scales from every bit large as 1:18 scale to as pocket-size as one:1250 scale. Plastic model kits requiring assembly and painting are primarily available in ane:144, 1:72, 1:48, i:32, and 1:24 scale. Die-bandage metallic models (pre-assembled and manufacturing plant painted) are available in scales ranging from 1:48th to 1:600th.

Scales are non random, only are generally based on divisions of either the Majestic system, or the Metric system. For example, 1:48 scale is i/4" to 1-foot (or ane" to 4 anxiety) and 1:72 is ane" to 6 feet, while in metric scales such as one:100th, 1 centimetre equals 1 metre. 1:72 calibration was introduced with Skybirds wood and metal model shipping kits in 1932 and were followed closely past Frog which used the aforementioned scale from 1936 with their "Frog Penguin" brand. ane:72 was popularized in the U.s. during the Second World War by the US State of war Department after information technology requested models of ordinarily encountered single engine aircraft at that scale, and multi-engine aircraft in ane:144th scale. They hoped to ameliorate aircraft recognition skills and these scales compromised between size and detail. After WWII, manufacturers continued with these scales, however kits are also added in other divisions of the royal system. 1:50th and 1:100th are common in Nippon and French republic which both employ Metric. Promotional models for airlines are produced in scales ranging from 1:200 to i:1200.

Some manufacturers made i:18th scale aircraft to go with cars of the same scale. Aircraft models, military machine vehicles, figures, cars, and trains all have unlike common scales only there is some crossover. There is a substantial corporeality of duplication of more famous subjects in different scales, which can be useful for forced perspective box dioramas.

Older models often did not conform to an established scale as they were sized to fit the box, and are referred to as existence to "Box Calibration".

Materials [edit]

Parts for a plastic model airplane all the same on their injection molding tree

The most common form of manufacture for kits is injection moulded polystyrene plastic, formed in steel forms. Plastic pellets are heated into a liquid and forced into the mould under loftier force per unit area through copse which volition agree all the parts, and ensure plastic flows to every office of the mould. This allows a greater degree of automation than other manufacturing processes merely moulds require big production runs to cover the toll of making them. Today, this takes identify generally in Asia and Eastern Europe. Smaller runs are possible with copper moulds, and some companies use resin or rubber moulds, but while the cost is lower for the mould, the durability is also lower and labour costs can be much higher.

Resin kits are fabricated in forms similar to those used for limited run plastic kits, merely these moulds are usually non equally durable, which limits them to smaller production runs, and prices for the finished product are higher.

Vacuum forming is some other common alternative but requires more skill, and details must be supplied by the modeller. There is a handful of photo etched metal kits which allow a high level of particular and they are unable to replicate compound curves.

Scale models tin can likewise be fabricated from paper or card stock. Commercial models are mainly printed by publishers in Frg or Eastern Europe but can be distributed through the cyberspace, some of which are offered this way for free.

From Earth War I through the 1950s, static model airplanes were also congenital from light weight bamboo or balsa wood and covered with tissue paper in the same manner as with flying models. This was a time consuming process that mirrored the bodily construction of airplanes through the beginning of World State of war II. Many model makers would create models from drawings of the actual aircraft.^[2]

Fix-made desk-superlative models include those produced in fiberglass for travel agents and aircraft manufacturers, likewise as collectors models made from die-bandage metallic, mahogany, resin and plastic.

Carbon fibre and fibre glass have become increasingly common in model aircraft kits. In model helicopters, main frames and rotor blades are often made from carbon fibre, along with ribs and spars in stock-still-wing aircraft wings.

Flying models [edit]

A free-flight hand-launched glider

More often than not known collectively as aeromodelling, some flight models resemble scaled downwardly versions of full scale aircraft, while others are congenital with no intention of looking like real aircraft. There are also models of birds, bats and pterosaurs (unremarkably ornithopters). The reduced size affects the model's Reynolds number which determines how the air reacts when flowing by the model, and compared to a full sized aircraft the size of command surfaces needed, the stability and the effectiveness of specific airfoil sections may differ considerably requiring changes to the pattern.

Control [edit]

Flight model shipping are generally controlled through ane of three methods

• Free flight (F/F) model aircraft are uncontrolled other than by command surfaces that must be preset earlier flying, and must have a loftier degree of natural stability. Most costless flying models are either unpowered gliders or rubber powered. These pre-date manned flight.^[3]
• Control line (C/Fifty) model aircraft use strings or wires to tether the model to a fundamental pivot, either held by manus or to a pole. The aircraft then flies in circles around that point, secured past i cable, while a 2nd provides pitch command through a connectedness to the elevator. Some use a 3rd cable to control a throttle. There are many competition categories. Speed flying is divided into classes based on engine displacement. Grade 'D' sixty size speed planes can easily accomplish speeds well in backlog of 150 mph (240 km/h).
• Radio-controlled shipping accept a controller who operates a transmitter which sends signals to a receiver in the model to actuate servos which adjust the model's flight controls similarly to a full sized aircraft. Traditionally, the radio signal directly controlled servos, however, modern examples frequently use flying control computers to stabilize the model or fifty-fifty to wing it autonomously. This is particularly the case with quadcopters. Rudimentary flight controllers were first introduced in model helicopters, with standalone electronic gyroscopes used stabilise the tail rotor control. Much similar quadcopters, this has now extended to all flight controls.

Construction [edit]

Extremely calorie-free F1D-class indoor-flying model with microfilm roofing

Flying models construction may differ from that of static models as both weight and strength are major considerations.

Flying models borrow construction techniques from full-sized aircraft although the use of metal is limited. These might consist of forming a frame using sparse planks of a light wood such as balsa to duplicate the formers, longerons, spars, and ribs of a vintage total-size aircraft, or, on larger (usually powered) models where weight is less of a cistron, sheets of woods, expanded polystyrene, and wood veneers may be employed. It is then given a smoothen sealed surface, normally with aircraft dope. For light models, tissue paper is used. For larger models (usually powered and radio controlled) heat-curing or rut shrink covering plastic films or heat-shrinkable synthetic fabrics are applied to the model. Microfilm roofing is used for the very lightest models and is made by spreading few drops of lacquer out over several square anxiety of water, and lifting a wire loop through it, which creates a thin plastic film. Flying models can be assembled from kits, built from plans, or made completely from scratch. A kit contains the necessary raw material, typically die- or laser-cut woods parts, some moulded parts, plans, assembly instructions and may take been flight tested. Plans are intended for the more experienced modeller, since the builder must make or observe the materials themselves. Scratch builders may describe their own plans, and source all the materials themselves. Whatsoever method may be labour-intensive, depending on the model in question.

To increment the hobby's accessibility, some vendors offer Almost Gear up to Wing (ARF) models which minimize the skills required, and reduce build time to under 4 hours, versus ten–40 or more for a traditional kit. Prepare To Fly (RTF) radio control aircraft are also available, even so model building remains integral to the hobby for many. For a more than mass marketplace approach, foamies, injection-molded from lightweight cream (sometimes reinforced) have fabricated indoor flight more accessible and many require fiddling more than attaching the wing and landing gear.

Gliders [edit]

model glider showing typical internal construction

Gliders do non take an fastened powerplant. Larger outdoor model gliders are usually radio-controlled gliders and mitt-winched against the current of air past a line fastened to a hook under the fuselage with a ring, and so that the line volition drop when the model is overhead. Other methods include catapult-launching, using an elastic bungee cord. The newer "discus" style of wingtip hand-launching has largely supplanted the earlier "javelin" type of launch. Also using footing-based power winches, hand-towing, and towing aloft using a second powered shipping.

Gliders sustain flying through exploitation of the wind in the environment. A hill or gradient will often produce updrafts of air which volition sustain the flight of a glider. This is called slope soaring, and radio controlled gliders can remain airborne for as long as the updraft remains. Another ways of attaining elevation in a glider is exploitation of thermals, which are columns of warm ascension air created past differences of temperature on the footing such as between an asphalt parking lot and a lake. Heated air rises, carrying the glider with it. As with a powered shipping, lift is obtained by the action of the wings every bit the shipping moves through the air, but in a glider, height is gained past flying through air that is rising faster than the aircraft is sinking.

Walkalong gliders are lightweight model airplanes flown in the ridge elevator produced by the pilot following in close proximity. In other words, the glider is slope soaring in the updraft of the moving pilot (see also Controllable slope soaring).

Power sources [edit]

Typical rubber powered model having the safety band (hidden in the fuselage) tightened by turning the propeller backwards, here being done with a handcrank

Powered models contain an onboard powerplant, a machinery powering propulsion of the aircraft through the air. Electric motors and internal combustion engines are the about mutual propulsion systems, just other types include rocket, small turbine, pulsejet, compressed gas, and tension-loaded (twisted) safe band devices.

Safe [edit]

The oldest method of powering gratuitous flight models is Alphonse Pénaud's elastic motor (or extensible motor) of 1871, essentially a long prophylactic band that is twisted to add tension, prior to flight. Information technology is the nearly widely used powerplant, found on everything from children's toys to contest models. The elastic offers simplicity and durability, but has a short running fourth dimension, and the initial loftier torque of a fully wound motor drops sharply earlier plateauing to a steady output, until the final turns unwind and power drops off completely. Using information technology efficiently is ane of the challenges of competitive complimentary-flying safety flight, and variable-pitch propellers, differential wing and tailplane incidence and rudder settings, controlled past timers, have been help manage the torque. There are also ordinarily motor weight restrictions in contest classes. Even so, models have achieved flights of nigh 1 60 minutes.^{[four] [5]}

Compressed Gases [edit]

Stored compressed gas, typically carbon dioxide (CO_two), can power simple models in a manner like to filling a balloon and then releasing it. Compressed CO₂ may also be used to power an expansion engine to turn a propeller. These engines can contain speed controls and multiple cylinders, and are capable of powering lightweight scale radio-controlled aircraft. Gasparin and Modela are two recent makers of CO_ii engines. CO_two, like condom, is known as "cold" power considering it generates no heat.

Steam is even older than rubber ability, and like rubber, contributed much to aviation history, is at present rarely used. In 1848, John Stringfellow flew a steam-powered model, in Chard, Somerset, England. Samuel Pierpont Langley built steam powered and internal combustion powered models that fabricated long flights.

Baronet Sir George Cayley built, and flew, internal and external combustion gunpowder-fueled model aircraft engines in 1807, 1819, and 1850. These had no crank, working ornithopter-like flappers instead of a propeller. He speculated that the fuel might exist too dangerous for manned aircraft.

Internal combustion [edit]

"Giant scale" 18 feet six inches (v.64 k) wingspan Lockheed C-130 Hercules radio control flying model powered with four internal combustion engines. A crew of five fly and maintain it.

For larger and heavier models, the almost popular powerplant is the glow plug engine. Glow engines are fueled by a mixture of tedious burning methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant (castor oil or constructed oil), which is sold pre-mixed as glow-fuel. Glow-engines require an external starting mechanism; the glow plug must exist heated until it is hot enough to ignite fuel to start. Reciprocating cylinders employ torque to a rotating crankshaft, which is the engine'south primary power-output. Some power is lost from converting linear motion to rotary and in lost heat and unburned fuel, so efficiency is low.

These are rated by engine deportation and range from 0.01 cu in (0.sixteen cc) to over ane.0 cu in (16 cc). The smallest engines can spin a 3.v inches (8.9 cm) propeller to over 30,000 rpm, while the larger engines plow at x–14,000 rpm.

The simplest glow-engines use the two-stroke cycle. These engines are inexpensive, and offer the highest power-to-weight ratio of all glow-engines, but are noisy and crave substantial expansion chamber mufflers, which may exist tuned. four-stroke cycle glow engines, whether using poppet valves or more rarely rotary valves are more fuel-efficient, but deliver less power than similar two-stroke engines. The ability they deliver is more suited to turning larger diameter propellers for lighter weight, higher drag airframes such as with in biplanes. Four-stroke engines are at present popular every bit they are quieter than two-stroke engines, and are available in horizontally opposed twins and radial engine configurations. Variations include engines with multiple-cylinders, spark-ignition gasoline operation, carbureted diesel operation and variable compression-ratio engines. Diesels are preferred for endurance and take higher torque, and for a given capacity, can "swing" a larger propeller than a glow engine. Abode manufacture of model aircraft engines is a hobby in its own right.

Jets and rockets [edit]

Early on "jet" style model aircraft used a multi-blade propeller ducted fan, inside ductwork, usually in the fuselage. The fans were mostly powered past two stroke engines at loftier RPM. They by and large had 0.xl to 0.90 cu in (6.6 to 14.seven cc) displacements, only some were equally small as 0.049 cu in (0.80 cc). This fan-in-tube design has been adopted successfully for electric-powered jets while glow engine powered ducted-fan shipping are at present rare. Small jet turbine engines are now used in hobbyist models that resemble simplified versions of the turbojet engines found on commercial aircraft, but are not scaled-down as Renold's numbers come up into play. The start hobbyist-developed turbine was developed and flown in the 1980s merely simply recently have commercial examples get readily available. Turbines require specialized design and precision-manufacturing, and some have been congenital from automobile engine turbocharger units. Owning or operating a turbine-powered aircraft is prohibitively expensive and many national aeromodelling clubs (as with the United states's Academy of Model Aeronautics) require members to exist certified to safely employ them.^[6] V-ane flight bomb type Pulsejet engines accept also been used as they offer more thrust in a smaller package than a traditional glow-engine, only are non widely used due to the extremely loftier noise levels they produce, and are illegal in some countries.

Rocket engines are sometimes used to boost gliders and sailplanes and the earliest purpose-built rocket motor dates back to the 1950s. This uses solid fuel pellets, ignited by a wick fuse with a reusable casing. Flyers can now likewise use single-utilize model rocket engines to provide a brusk, nether 10 second burst of power. Government restrictions in some countries made rocket-propulsion rare but these were being eased in many places and their use was expanding, however a reclassification from "smoke producing devices" to "fireworks" has made them difficult to obtain again.

Electric power [edit]

Minor electrical powered model of a pre-WW1 era Bleriot Eleven

Electric-powered models use an electric motor powered past a source of electricity - usually a bombardment. Electrical ability began being used on models in the 1970s, simply the toll delayed widespread utilise until the early 1990s, when more efficient battery technologies, and brushless motors became available, while the costs of motors, batteries and control systems dropped dramatically. Electric ability now predominated with park-flyer and 3D-flyer models, both of which are small and lite, where electric-power offers greater efficiency and reliability, less maintenance and mess, quieter flying and almost-instantaneous throttle response compared to gas engines.

The first electrical models used brushed DC motors and nickel cadmium (NiCad) rechargeable cells which gave flight times of 5 to 10 minutes, while a comparable glow-engine provided double the flight-time. Later electric systems used more than-efficient brushless DC motors and college-chapters nickel metal hydride (NiMh) batteries, yielding considerably improved flight times. Cobalt and lithium polymer batteries (LiPoly or LiPo) permit electric flight-times to surpass those of glow-engines, while the more rugged and durable, cobalt-free lithium fe phosphate batteries are also becoming popular. Solar power has as well become practical for R/C hobbyists, and in June 2005 a record flying of 48 hours and 16 minutes was set in California. Information technology is now possible to power most models under 20 lb (9.1 kg) with electric ability for a cost equivalent to or lower than traditional power sources.

Recent developments accept resulted in the use of brushless three-phase motors in model aviation. Brushless motors are more powerful and offer greater torque and efficiency. The design of brushless motors also means less internal friction, as at that place is no requirement for brushes to exist in contact with any rotating parts. This increase in efficiency results in longer flying times.^[7]

Propulsion types [edit]

Nigh powered model-aircraft, including electric, internal-combustion, and safety-band powered models, generate thrust past spinning an airscrew. The propeller is the most usually used device. Propellers generate thrust due to lift generated past the fly-like sections of the blades, which forces air backwards.

Propellers [edit]

A large bore and low-pitch propeller offers greater thrust and dispatch at low airspeed, while a small diameter and college-pitch propeller sacrifices acceleration for higher maximum speeds. The builder can choose from a option of propellers to friction match the model just a mismatched propeller tin can compromise operation, and if besides heavy, cause undue vesture on the powerplant. Model aircraft propellers are usually specified as diameter × pitch, in inches. For example, a 5 x iii propeller has a diameter of 5 inches (130 mm), and a pitch of 3 inches (76 mm). The pitch is the distance that the propeller would advance if turned through one revolution in a solid medium. Ii and three bladed propellers are the most common.

Three methods are used to transfer energy to the propeller:

• Direct-drive systems have the propeller fastened directly to the engine'due south crankshaft or driveshaft. This arrangement is preferred when the propeller and powerplant both operate near tiptop efficiency at similar rpms. Straight-drive is most mutual with fuel-powered engines. Very rarely, some electric motors are designed with a sufficiently high torque and low enough speed and tin can employ direct-bulldoze as well. These motors are typically called outrunners.

• Reduction drive uses gears to reduce shaft rpm, so the motor can spin much faster. The higher the gear ratio, the slower the prop will rotate, which also increases torque past roughly the aforementioned ratio. This is common on larger models and on those with unusually big propellers. The reduction drive matches the powerplant and propeller to their respective optimum operating speeds. Geared propellers are rare on internal combustion engines, but are common on electrical motors considering most electric motors spin extremely fast, but lack torque.

• A built-in two:1 gear reduction ratio can exist obtained by attaching the propeller to the camshaft rather than the crankshaft of a iv stroke engine, which runs at half the speed of the crankshaft.^[8]

Ducted fans [edit]

Ducted fans are multi-blade propellers encased in a cylindrical duct or tube that may wait like and fit in the same space as jet engine. They are available for both electric and liquid-fuelled engines, although they accept only become common with recent improvements in electrical-flying technology. A model aircraft can now be fitted with four electrical ducted fans for less than the cost of a single jet turbine, enabling affordable modelling of multi-engine aeroplanes. Compared to an unducted propeller, a ducted fan generates more thrust for the same area and speeds of up to 200 mph (320 km/h) have been recorded with electric-powered ducted fan airplanes, largely due to the higher RPMs possible with ducted fan propellers. Ducted fans are popular with scale models of jet aircraft, where they mimic the appearance of jet engines only they are also plant on not-scale and sport models, and even lightweight 3D-flyers.

Modest ornithopter, made to resemble a hummingbird

Other [edit]

With ornithopters the move of the wing structure imitates the flapping-wings of living birds, producing both thrust and lift.

Competitions [edit]

Earth competitions are organised by the FAI in the following classes:

• Grade F – model shipping
  • F1(x) – Free Flight (A,B,C,D,E,G,H,P,Q)
  • F2(x) – Control Line (A,B,C,D,E)
  • F3A – Radio Control Aerobatics
  • F3B – Radio Control Soaring (Multi-chore)
  • F3C – Radio Control Helicopters
  • F3D – Pylon Racing
  • F3F – Radio Control Soaring (Gradient)
  • F3J – Radio Control Soaring (Duration)
  • F3K – Paw Launch Gliders
  • F3M – Big Radio Control Aerobatics
  • F3P – Radio Command Indoor Aerobatics
  • F5B – Electrical Motor Glider – Multi Task (held in alternate years only)
  • F5D – Electric Pylon Racing
  • F5J – Electric Motor Glider – Thermal Duration
  • FAI – Drone Racing (F3U)

• Class Southward – infinite model
• Class U – unmanned aerial vehicle

Free flight (F1) [edit]

The Wakefield Gold Challenge Cup is an international modelling competition named for the donor, Lord Wakefield which was starting time held on 5 July 1911 at The Crystal Palace in England. There were contests in 1912, 1913 and 1914. No contests were held once again until 1927, when the Social club of Model Aeronautical Engineers (SMAE) approached Lord Wakefield for a new larger silvery trophy for international competition. This bays is the nowadays Wakefield International Loving cup and was first awarded in 1928. The SMAE organized the international competitions until 1951 when the FAI took over, and has since been made the award for the rubber-power category at the FAI World Complimentary Flight Championships. The FAI free flight (F1) classes include:

• F1A – Gliders
• F1B – Model Aircraft with extensible (prophylactic band) motors – Wakefield Trophy
• F1C – Power model aircraft (combustion powered 2.5 cc (0.xv cu in))
• F1D – Indoor model aircraft
• F1E – Gliders with automatic steering
• F1N – Indoor hand-launch gliders
• F1P – Ability model aircraft (combustion powered ane.0cc)
• F1Q – Electrical power model shipping
• F1G – Model aircraft with extensible (safety ring) motors « Coupe d'hiver » (provisional)
• F1H – Gliders (provisional)
• F1J – Power model aircraft (provisional) (combustion powered ane.0 cc (0.061 cu in))
• F1K – Model aircraft with CO2 motors (conditional)
• F1L – Indoor zone EZB model aircraft (provisional)
• F1M – Indoor model aircraft (provisional)
• F1R – Indoor model aircraft "Micro 35" (conditional)
• F1S – Small-scale electric power model aircraft "E36"

Control Line (F2) [edit]

F2C class command line models

Also referred to as U-Command in the United states, it was pioneered past the late Jim Walker who often, for show, flew iii models at a time. Normally the model is flown in a circumvolve and controlled by a pilot in the center holding a handle continued to two thin steel wires. The wires connect through the inboard wing tip of the aeroplane to a mechanism that translates the handle movement to the aircraft elevator, allowing maneuvers to be performed along the shipping pitch axis. The pilot will turn to follow the model going circular, the convention being anti-clockwise for upright level flight.

For the conventional command-line system, tension in the lines is required to provide control. Line tension is maintained largely by centrifugal force. To increment line tension, models may be congenital or adjusted in diverse means. Rudder first and thrust vectoring (tilting the engine toward the outside) yaw the model outward. The position where the lines leave the wing tin can compensate for the trend of the aerodynamic drag of the lines to yaw the model inboard. Weight on the outside wing, an inside wing that is longer or has more than lift than the outside wing (or even no outside wing at all) and the torque of a left rotating propeller (or flying clockwise) tend to scroll the model toward the outside. Fly tip weights, propeller torque, and thrust vectoring are more effective when the model is going slowly, while rudder showtime and other aerodynamic effects take more than influence on a fast moving model.

Since its introduction, control line flying has developed into a competition sport. There are contest categories for control line models, including Speed, Aerobatics (AKA Stunt), Racing, Navy Carrier, Balloon Bosom, Calibration, and Gainsay. In that location are variations on the basic events, including divisions by engine size and blazon, skill categories, and age of model blueprint.

The events originated largely in the United States, and were after adapted for use internationally. The rules for The states Competition are available from the Academy of Model Aeronautics. The international rules are divers by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Earth Championships are held semiannually throughout the world, almost recently in 2008 in France, with a limited slate of events – special varieties of Racing (F2C or "Team Race"), gainsay (F2D), and speed (F2A), all express to engines displacing 0.15 cu. in (2.5cc), and Stunt (F2b) which is essentially unlimited with regard to design and size.

CIAM (FAI Aeromodelling Committee) designed this classes for F2 Control Line category:

F2A

CL Speed

F2B

CL Aerobatics

F2C

CL Team racing

The international course of racing is referred to as F2C (F2 = Command-line, C=racing) or Team Race. A pilot and a mechanic compete as a team to fly small 370 g (13 oz) 65 cm (26 in) wingspan semi-scale racing models over a tarmac or physical surface. Lines are xv.92 m (52.2 ft) long.

Iii pilots, plus mechanic teams, compete simultaneously in the aforementioned circle, and the object is to terminate the adamant form as fast every bit possible. Tank size is express to seven cc (0.43 cu in), requiring 2 or 3 refueling pitstops during the race.

The mechanic stands at a pit area exterior the marked flight circle. The engine is started and the model released on the start signal. For refuelling, the pilot volition operate a fuel shutoff past a quick down lift motion later the planned number of laps so that the model can approach the mechanic at optimum speed, of effectually 31 mph (50 km/h). The mechanic will catch the model by the wing, fill up the tank from a pressurized can by a hose and finger valve, then restart the engine past flicking the propeller with his finger. A pitstop generally takes less than iii seconds.

The course is six.ii mi (x km), with 100 laps. Flying speeds are around 200 km/h (120 mph), which means that the pilots will turn one lap in roughly 1.8 seconds. Line pull due to centrifugal force is nineteen lbf (85 N). An overtaking model will be steered over the heads of the competing pilots of slower models.

Later two rounds of elimination heats, the half dozen, ix or 12 fastest teams enter 2 semifinal rounds, and the three fastest teams in the semifinals go to the final, which is run over the double form. Single cylinder two-stroke Diesel fuel compression ignition engines designed for this purpose of up to ii.five cc (0.15 cu in) are used. At the earth championship level it is common for competitors design and build their ain engines. Output power approaches 0.8 hp (0.60 kW) at 25,000 rpm.

F2D – CL Combat [edit]

Form F2D - Control Line Gainsay Model Aircraft - Two pilots compete, with four mechanics in the pit. The aircraft are light and very stubby so as to manoeuvre quickly in the air. Each has a viii ft two in (ii.v grand) crepe paper streamer fastened to the rear of the aircraft by a 3 grand (9.8 ft) cord. Each airplane pilot only attacks the other aircraft's streamer, to endeavor to cutting it with their propeller or fly. Each cut scores 100 points. Each second the model is in the air scores a point and the friction match runs for iv minutes from the starter'due south signal. At the nearly 120 mph (200 km/h) speeds of the shipping, mistakes often lead to crash damage and then ii aircraft are permitted for each friction match. The mechanics are prepared for crashes and will quickly start the 2d aircraft and transfer the streamer to the reserve model before launching. The action is and then fast that an observer may miss the cuts of the streamers. A second loss eliminates a competitor, and the last pilot nonetheless flying wins. FAI AEROMODELLING Committee (CIAM)

Radio Controlled Flight (F3) [edit]

F3A

RC Aerobatic Aircraft

F3B

RC Multi-Chore Gliders

F3C

RC Aerobatic Helicopters

F3D

RC Pylon Racing Aeroplanes

Pylon racing refers to a class of air racing for radio controlled model aircraft that fly through a form of pylons.^[9] The sport is similar to the full-scale Cerise Bull Air Race Globe Series.

F3F

RC Slope Soaring Gliders

F3J

RC Thermal Duration Gliders

F3K

RC Hand Launch Gliders

F3M

RC Large Aerobatic Aircraft

F3N

RC Freestyle Aerobatic Helicopters

F3P

RC Indoor Aerobatic Aircraft

F3H

RC Soaring Cantankerous Land Gliders

F3Q

RC Aero-Tow Gliders

F3R

RC Pylon Racing Limited Applied science Aeroplanes

F3S

RC Jet Aerobatic Aircraft

F3T

RC Semi-Scale Pylon Racing with Controlled Engineering Aeroplanes

F3U

RC Multi-rotor FPV Racing

The FAI Drone Racing World Cup is in the F3U grade (Radio Control Multi-rotor FPV Racing). This is a highly competitive action, involving mental exertion and big cash prizes.

Model aerodynamics [edit]

A contest-winning newspaper glider

The flight behaviour of an aircraft depends on the calibration to which it is built, the density of the air and the speed of flight.

At subsonic speeds the relationship between these is expressed by the Reynolds number. Where two models at different scales are flown with the aforementioned Reynolds number, the airflow volition be similar. Where the Reynolds numbers differ, as for example a small model flight at lower speed than the full-size craft, the airflow characteristics can differ significantly. This tin can make an exact scale model unflyable, and the model has to be modified in some way. For instance, at low Reynolds numbers, a flying scale model usually requires a larger-than-scale propeller.

Maneuverability depends on scale, with stability also becoming more of import. Command torque is proportional to lever arm length while angular inertia is proportional to the square of the lever arm, and then the smaller the scale the more quickly an aircraft or other vehicle will turn in response to control inputs or exterior forces.

One consequence of this is that models in general require boosted longitudinal and directional stability, resisting sudden changes in pitch and yaw. While it may be possible for a pilot to reply quickly enough to command an unstable shipping, a radio control calibration model of the aforementioned aircraft would only be flyable with pattern adjustments such as increased tail surfaces and wing dihedral for stability, or with avionics providing bogus stability. Free flying models need to take both static and dynamic stability. Static stability is the resistance to sudden changes in pitch and yaw already described, and is typically provided by the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces respectively, and by a forrad center of gravity. Dynamic stability is the ability to render to directly and level flight without any command input. The three dynamic instability modes are pitch (phugoid) oscillation, screw and Dutch curlicue. An aircraft with likewise large a horizontal tail on a fuselage that is also brusque may take a phugoid instability with increasing climbs and dives. With free flight models, this usually results in a stall or loop at the end of the initial climb. Insufficient dihedral or sweep back volition generally lead to increasing spiral turn. Likewise much dihedral or sweepback by and large causes Dutch roll. These all depend on the scale, besides as details of the shape and weight distribution. For example, the paper glider shown here is a contest winner when made of a small sheet of paper simply will go from side to side in Dutch whorl when scaled up even slightly.

See too [edit]

• Control line also called U-Control
  • Round-the-pole flying
• Model engine
  • Cox model engine
  • Thunder Tiger
  • O.S. Engines
• Die-cast toy
• Free flying (model aircraft)
• History of aviation
• International Miniature Aerobatic Club
• International Plastic Modellers' Society (IPMS)
• Listing of model aircraft manufacturers
• List of model airplane fields in the USA
• List of scale model kit manufacturers
• Micro air vehicle
• Model Airplane News
• Model airport
• Model ship
• Paper plane
• Radio-controlled aircraft
• Radio-controlled model
• Simple Plastic Aeroplane Design
• Walkalong glider

Footnotes [edit]

1. ^ Scott Mayerowitz, AP Airlines Writer (18 March 2015). "Airline world's tiny hole-and-corner: infatuation with model planes". USA TODAY.
2. ^ "Building a 1948 Model Plane Kit". www.jitterbuzz.com.
3. ^ "Model Flight Machines". geocities.com. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009.
4. ^ Testing Commercial Rubber – R.J. North, Model Shipping mag, February 1961
5. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 June 2008. Retrieved 23 October 2007. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
6. ^ AMA. "AMA Documents – Turbines". AMA. Retrieved v October 2012.
7. ^ "MAS.865 2018 How to Make Something that Makes (almost) Annihilation". fab.cba.mit.edu . Retrieved 21 January 2022.
8. ^ Keith Lawes. "The Rotating Cylinder Valve 4-stroke Engine (SAE Paper 2002-32-1828)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 November 2011. Retrieved 3 Jan 2012.
9. ^ "National Miniature Pylon Racing". nmpra.net. NMPRA. Retrieved 6 July 2015.

References [edit]

• RCadvisor′s Model Airplane Design Made Easy, by Carlos Reyes, RCadvisor.com, Albuquerque, New United mexican states, 2009. ISBN 9780982261323 OCLC 361461928
• The Slap-up International Paper Airplane Volume, by Jerry Mander, George Dippel and Howard Gossage, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1967. ISBN 0671289918 OCLC 437094
• Model Shipping Aerodynamics, by Martin Simons, Swanley: Nexus Special Interests, 1999. 4th ed. ISBN 1854861905 OCLC 43634314
• How to Pattern and Build Flight Model Airplanes, past Keith Laumer, Harper, New York, 1960. 2nd ed., 1970. OCLC 95315
• The Middle Ages of the Internal-Combustion Engine, past Horst O. Hardenberg, SAE, 1999. ISBN 0768003911 OCLC 40632327
• Model Airplane Design and Theory of Flight, by Charles Hampson Grant, Jay Publishing Corporation, New York, 1941. OCLC 1336984
• Pulling Dorsum the Clouds, by Mike Kelly, Limerick Writers' Heart Publishing, Ireland, 2020. ISBN 9781916065383

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_aircraft

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